Beyond their semantic and evaluative tone: Derogatory group labels as a social tool of disempowerment

Derogatory group labels (i.e., DGLs) frame group memberships (e.g., a Jew) in an offensive fashion (e.g., a kike), thus allowing an individual or a group to be insulted by disparaging their social identity (Carnaghi & Bianchi, 2017; O’Dea et al., 2015). In this chapter, we will review three distinct, though related, theoretical perspectives that have conceptualized DGLs differently. The first perspective is focused on the lexical aspects of DGLs, and suggests that label semantics account for both the appraisal and the psychological consequences of exposure to DGLs (Mullen & Leader, 2005). The second perspective stems from Allport’s insight suggesting that DGLs are ‘emoionally toned labels’ (Allport, 1954/1979, p.181). Accordingly, DGLs are framed as ‘a telegraphic shorthand for hostile prejudice’ (Mullen & Lead- er, 2005), thus highlighting the close interplay between DGLs and prejudice. The third perspective was introduced by Maass and later developed by other scholars; this perspective has emphasized the role of DGLs in highlighting the lower status of a stigmatized group and the disempowering of that group (Carnaghi & Maass, 2007a; Wang et al., 2017). Rather than being mutually exclusive, these perspectives have focused on specific facets of DGLs and have highlighted a panoply of unique psychological consequences associated with overhearing such labels.