An Assessment of Proximity in the 15-Minute City: A Systematic Literature Review

The 15-Minute City concept (FMC), proposed by Carlos Moreno, offers a chronourbanist approach to fostering sustainable, inclusive, and low-carbon urban living by promoting proximity-based access to daily services. This paper systematically reviews 113 peer-reviewed publications from 2021 to early 2025, sourced from Scopus and Web of Science using the PRISMA protocol, to evaluate how proximity is empirically measured, its impacts on mobility, urban form, and spatial equity. Network-based accessibility models dominate proximity measurement, though slopesensitive modelling remains rare despite its importance for hilly cities. Evidence from Paris, Barcelona, and Lisbon shows that FMC strategies reduce car dependency, promote walking and cycling, and lower emissions. However, socio-spatial inequalities could persist, particularly for children, elderly, and low-income residents. Research remains heavily concentrated in Europe, North America, and East Asia, with minimal empirical evidence from the Global South. Key research gaps identified include the limited integration of urban freight and lastmile logistics into FMC frameworks, the lack of slope-adjusted accessibility models, insufficient investigation of traveller behaviour and perception of local services, limited attention to service quality and affordability, and the need for strategies to mitigate gentrification and displacement risks. Future research must address these areas to operationalise equitable, contextsensitive FMC strategies across diverse urban environments. This review offers an evidence base for planners, policymakers, and researchers