The virulence toolkit of Staphylococcus aureus: a comprehensive review of toxin diversity, molecular mechanisms, and clinical implications

Purpose: This review examines the pathogenic mechanisms of Staphylococcus aureus, emphasizing its toxin-driven virulence factors, including pore-forming toxins, exfoliative toxins, and superantigens. Methods: This paper was conducted using the available literature (PubMed/MEDLINE/Google Scholar and books written by experts in pharmacology and infectious diseases). Results: Toxins are crucial in promoting tissue invasion, immune system evasion, and the development of systemic diseases. Notably, the qualitative and quantitative expression of these toxins influences the clinical presentation and severity of S. aureus infections. The paper explores toxins' role in S. aureus pathogenesis and clinical manifestations as well as current and emerging therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting these toxins, including antibiotics, monoclonal antibodies, and anti-inflammatory treatments. Additionally, it highlights the potential of novel inhibitors and vaccines to neutralize specific toxins and prevent toxin-mediated diseases. Conclusion: By combining antimicrobial therapies with approaches that neutralize toxins and modulate the immune response, clinicians can improve outcomes in patients affected by S. aureus infections.